Much of the current human knowledge about Universe concerns atomic scale interactions. Even though, most of the effects and their causes within atomic scales are well observed and documented, the justifications presented for these interactions are overwhelmingly based on flawed perceptions. On the other hand, when it comes to human knowledge of Universe in galactic scales, even the simplest events and their causes are unknown let alone the existence of proper explanations for them. The main reason behind the naïve human knowledge of the galactic-scale phenomena lies in their extremely-slow pace of development relative to rates of change experienced by human.
Human’s immature knowledge of galactic phenomena involves even the most basic properties of celestial entities including their masses, sizes, or distances. While Physics employs various methods to estimate mass, size, or distance of celestial entities, all these methods rely on highly questionable assumptions in their estimations of these properties. For instance, using luminosity in determining distance of a galaxy implies that all galaxies with similar masses are already presumed to illuminate with the same brightness. Another mistakenly used approach employs Hubble’s law that assesses the distance of galaxies from Earth by relying on the imaginary Big Bang theory and its Expansion-theory offspring. Hubble’s law presumes that the distance to a galaxy and galaxy’s recessional velocity, as seen from Earth, are proportional. Therefore, based on Hubble’s law, the larger the red-shift observed in the emission spectrum of a celestial entity, the farther it is from Earth.
Knowing all worlds in Universe replicate similar experiences, the most effective way to understand a world and its governing rules would be to make a one-to-one correspondence between its atomic and galactic scale components. Thereby, to find out the unknown issues in either of the atomic or galactic scales, the known knowledge from the corresponding match would be equally applicable. Although, the limited knowledge of atomic and especially galactic scale phenomena makes it difficult to confidently assign every single of these one-to-one analogies, such an approach would significantly improve human understanding of Universe. Therefore, in the following sections, the most appropriate of such correspondences in accordance with the available knowledge of Universe are made in a rather simplistic way. These correspondences are further used to mainly explain much of the fundamental interactions in atomic scales and to a lesser extent to apply the existing knowledge in atomic scales to galactic properties and effects. While during the arrangement of the contents in the following sections it has been tried to sequentially prepare the ground for every upcoming subject, it should be borne in mind that most topics contain overlapping concepts.
HYDROGEN
Considering the overwhelming abundance of both spiral-galaxies and hydrogen atoms in the world, hydrogen atoms best correspond to spiral-galaxies. However, unlike the current perception that mass and size properties among spiral-galaxies differ significantly, in fact, either of these values may only slightly vary from an ideal equilibrium. The equilibrium state in a spiral-galaxy is achieved when it has no or least desire in losing or gaining celestial bodies.
Based on various experimental results such as consistent bending of trajectories of ionized hydrogen atoms, while passing through electric or magnetic fields, it should be the mass values of hydrogen atoms that occur around an equilibrium value. Mass values in isolated hydrogen atoms are more likely to be closer to the equilibrium value than to occur with large deviations. Since the dimensions in each atom are closely entangled with its mass, the size of hydrogen atoms should also occur around an average value with little deviations.
HEAT
Heat in every world is the interpretation of an increased state of vibration or movement of celestial entities in the immediate world aback. These vibrations or movements are the result of gravitational perturbations caused by external matter increasing in amount within the inter-celestial medium. External celestial entities that may cause the perturbations range from simple celestial bodies such as dust, planets, and stars to celestial objects such as galaxies and other groupings of celestial bodies. The gravitational perturbations disturb the otherwise largely smooth rotation of galactic discs around the bulges. In practice, by heating up a substance, external matter is injected into the vicinity or halo of atoms perturbing the existing gravitational harmony among components of each galaxy and therefore among neighboring galaxies. Hence, an increase in temperature is an indication of faster, and often less rhythmic, vibrations of galaxies and their constituent components compared to their equilibrium state.
On the contrary, cooling down a substance means withdrawing the excess intergalactic matter from the halo and vicinity of galaxies in their immediate world aback. Galaxies residing in an environment with minimum external celestial entities, experience least gravitational perturbations. These galaxies may maintain the direction of their disc rotations or precession axes for long durations of time, according to the equilibrium they have established with neighboring galaxies.
NEUTRONS
Because of the strong penetrability of a neutron particle through most of materials, its lack of interest in sensible response to magnetic or electric stimuli, and its emission by lightweight atoms once bombarded by speedy ionized hydrogens, it is safe to assume neutrons as hydrogens which are gravitationally perturbed beyond a reversible state. Considering the available knowledge about celestial objects, currently a neutron particle best corresponds to an elliptical dwarf galaxy.
Hydrogen’s family of isotopes, namely hydrogen itself as well as deuterium and tritium, provide the most direct evidence to the existence of neutron particles. In the absence of such evidence it might have been argued that neutrons were just provisional transformations of hydrogen atoms after being ejected from target atoms by impinging ions. Deuterium and tritium isotopes are grouped with hydrogen since their chemical properties mostly resemble one another as it is seen in heavy and tritiated water formations, respectively. Concerning the equilibrium configuration of constituent components, it is probably best to assume that in tritium the nuclear components are lined up as neutron-hydrogen-neutron with the two neutrons making contact to hydrogen on the opposite sides of the hydrogen disc while the mass centers of all three components lie on the same line. In the case of deuterium, one of the neutrons is absent and therefore the isotope is gravitationally less perturbed in comparison with tritium, leading to a more stable isotope.
Free neutron particles have been mainly detected after external stimulation of lightweight atoms through their bombardment by proton and alpha particles. Considering the unknown effects of ejection mechanisms and subsequent behaviors of ejected neutron particles, there is insufficient evidence to draw parallels between the levels of instability caused by the stray neutrons and constituent neutrons residing within atoms. The arrival of external neutrons, especially the ones with optimized kinetic energies, has been observed to have large destabilizing effects on various isotopes while the residing neutrons not only might have little or no destabilizing effect, but might even contribute to the stabilization of some isotopes.
Although, highly unstable hydrogen passed beyond the reversibility point is presented as the best model for the structure of a neutron, the experimental observation of magnetic field effect on neutron alignment indicates at least a low degree of harmonic behavior among the celestial bodies forming neutron particles.
ATOMS
Atoms more massive than hydrogen correspond to galaxies more massive than spiral-galaxies. The simplest case of a union in galactic scales occurs between two closely placed celestial objects when under negligible gravitational disturbances from the surroundings. In such a situation, the two celestial objects find an equilibrium state in which both seem to lose a small fraction of their celestial bodies. In the case of two spiral-galaxies being in such a state, they form a structure which is known as hydrogen-hydrogen binary while in the case of a spiral-galaxy and a dwarf galaxy it leads to the formation of a hydrogen-neutron binary structure. It seems feasible that under certain conditions, even ternary or quaternary constituent elements may combine and create more massive structures, though this is much less likely because of further complications caused by the extra gravitational perturbations involved with the higher number of constituent entities.
In the absence of strong gravitational disturbances, these binary structures stay intact. However, in the presence of excessive celestial bodies, based on how stable these structures are, some of them may end up acquiring an encompassing disc of celestial bodies. The gravitational interaction between the core components and encompassing disc leads to the formation of a far more stable compound, compared to what would have been achievable in the absence of encompassing disc. Such combinations of core components and their encompassing discs make what are known as atoms.
Helium atom makes the least complicated example of atoms after hydrogen. The best way of visualizing the dominant isotope of helium atom seems to be through a combination of two spiral-galaxies and two dwarf galaxies as core components that are all confined by a joint disc of encompassing celestial bodies. Although, the mass of encompassing disc appears to be small, compared to core components’ mass forming the bulge, it plays a significant part in the overall stability of helium.
According to the current knowledge of atoms, two conjoined spiral-galaxies form a stable pair known as hydrogen-hydrogen molecule. Therefore, neither of the spiral-galaxies forming the pair within helium core tends to form a bond with external spiral-galaxies. This explains why under ambient conditions helium strongly disfavors forming a chemical bond with other atoms and thus is known as one of the noble gases.
Neon makes another noble-gas configuration example whose most stable isotope structure is created when ten spiral-galaxies and ten dwarf galaxies are gravitationally confined within a joint encompassing disc.
Just like the fact that values of mass in all atoms are roughly a natural-number multiple of the mass of single hydrogen, mass of galaxies should be an approximate natural-number multiplication of the mass of single spiral-galaxy in equilibrium too. However, the estimated mass of atoms deviates from an exact natural-number multiplication of a spiral-galaxy due to specific bulge dynamics and especially due to varying disc-masses.
The total number of spiral and dwarf galaxies forming the bulge of atoms is an important factor determining how stable an atom can be. Some specific numbers, known as magic numbers, usually result in symmetric distribution of bulge components and therefore increase the overall stability of the corresponding isotopes.
It is worth emphasizing that since Universe is in equilibrium, the creation of massive atoms from smaller ones should not change its balance towards a Universe with more abundant massive atoms. There are by far more spiral-galaxies formed from celestial bodies than massive atoms formed from fusing spiral-galaxies. The overall outcome is that the relative fractions of atoms in the world always stay around their all-time equilibrium ratios.
Spiral and dwarf galaxies within the bulges of atoms seem to be constantly moving. Thus, the backscattering of accelerated charged particles from the bulge is not necessarily an electrostatic encounter but could also be a gravitational repulsion of the incoming particles. Accordingly, under certain encounter conditions, scattering always takes place whether impinging particles are charged or neutral. Respective experimental examples of these situations are observed in Rutherford and neutron backscattering experiments.
In practice, the constant coverage of the bulge components by the sweeping disc plane leads to the formation of an effective galactic sphere around atoms. Only those celestial objects which constitute a small fraction of the host galaxy’s mass can enter its galactic sphere. Arrival of more massive celestial objects would cause a mutual repulsion should they approach the galactic sphere. Such repulsions lead to temporary destabilization of both entities and thus loss of some fractions of their celestial bodies depending on the nature of the encounter.
Besides the gravitational confinement created by a rotating disc, the dynamics of the core components within the bulge seem be equally responsible for the overall stability of atoms. In some situations where the rotation of disc plane around the bulge is hampered by interlocking with neighboring atoms, constituent components of the bulge move faster within the bulge which is a consequence of the preservation of rotational momentum in atoms. The overall movements of components within the bulge follow patterns which are decided by atom’s unique configuration and the nature of its interactions with neighboring celestial entities. Usually, the internal dynamics of bulge and disc cannot disrupt the gravitational balance of an atom. However, in atoms with unstable bulge configurations, the gravitational confinement of the encompassing disc may fail in properly retaining the components of the bulge. Thus, as it is seen in unstable isotopes and most massive atoms, bulge constituent components occasionally manage to escape the bulge in materials which are referred to as radioactive. Such escapes usually decrease the instability in these atoms by reducing the overall gravitational repulsions within the bulge. Apart from dynamics of the bulge and its encompassing disc, the conditions dictated by adjacent celestial entities also affect particle emission patterns in radioactive atoms.
The ejection of hydrogen and helium from radioactive atoms, known respectively as proton and alpha particle emissions, is an indication that these two atomic configurations are the main building blocks forming the bulge of more massive atoms.
The evidence of massive atoms’ nuclear structure will sooner or later be established through the development of increasingly more sophisticated astronomic observational-tools which optically resolve the bulge components within big galaxies. However, should the Milky Way galaxy be a hydrogen atom located in an isolated constellation of hydrogen gas faraway from massive atoms, human striving to find conclusive evidence on the presence of massive atoms will become even more challenging.
BONDS
Every two closely located spiral-galaxies may form a joint gravitational equilibrium known as a covalent bond. In the case of two isolated spiral-galaxies this leads to the formation of H2 molecule. Gravitational perturbations increase the chances of bond formation among neighboring atoms by moving and rotating the spiral-galaxies to the right position and angle.
Just like the bond formation between isolated spiral-galaxies, spiral-galaxies located inside neighboring bulges of massive atoms may form a covalent bond across the two atoms. In a single bond formation between spiral-galaxies located inside the bulges of neighboring atoms, the distance between the atoms on the line connecting the two bond-forming spiral-galaxies would be at its minimum. The first bond formed between a pair of spiral-galaxies across neighboring bulges is known as sigma bond. The line of bond connecting the two bulges occurs away from disc planes belonging to the engaged atoms and does not cut through or over them.
Creation of the second bond between another pair of spiral-galaxies across the already-sigma-bonded bulges leads to the formation of two equally distanced bonds across the bulges. Obviously, in the case of having double bonds between two neighboring bulges, the competition between the two pulling bonds, located across the galactic hemispheres facing the other atom, results in the formation of lengthier bonds compared to the situation where only one bond existed. This explains why the second bond, regarded as pi bond, has been wrongly perceived to result in a weaker bond compared to the sigma bond. The formation of the second bond leads to an elongation of the first bond as the two bonds pull atoms across the two bulge hemispheres towards each other. The spatial position of either bond within the bulge at any given moment mainly depends on the restrictions imposed by the gravitational interactions among constituent components of every bulge and therefore slightly varies around an average value. A noticeable consequence of second bond formation between two neighboring atoms would be locking of the engaged bulges on a planar surface containing the two bond lines.
Formation of third bond between the two neighboring bulges leads to an elongation of the existing two bonds to a new equilibrium length which is also shared by the third bond. These three equally-distanced bonds are almost symmetrically located on the corners of an equilateral triangle around the position of minimum distance between the two bulge spheres. The exact arrangement of the bonds depends on the configuration and dynamics of the adjoined atoms including the locations of their disc planes.
A longer distance between spiral-galaxy pairs forming the bonds, leads to weaker individual bonds compared to the situation where less bonds existed. In other words, the dissociation energy needed to break the first of individually paired spiral-galaxies decreases when the number of bonds between two neighboring atoms increases. Thus, the dissociation energy for remaining bond or bonds increases after breaking each further bond among the two bonded atoms.
Carbon atom provides a good example of bond formation mechanism. Carbon’s atomic structure places it somewhere between those of helium and neon and its stable isotope contains a total of twelve spiral and dwarf galaxies at its bulge. In its equilibrium, four of the six spiral-galaxies may geometrically occupy corners of a tetrahedron within the bulge. The remaining two spiral-galaxies occupy the center location of tetrahedron as a bonded pair. It seems two out of the four spiral-galaxies located at the corners of the tetrahedron can form bonds among themselves or with the outside spiral-galaxies. Therefore, a carbon atom may make two or four external bonds with external atoms.
In the case of two carbon atoms forming chemical bonds together, the maximum number of formed bonds would be limited to three since one of the spiral-galaxies in both atoms will always be located on the opposite side of the bulge spheres facing away from the bonded carbon atom. This is the only reason why there are no carbon-carbon molecules with four bonds, something which cannot be explained by current Physics’ concept of orbital hybridization in carbon atoms. Similarly, for all relatively small size atoms the maximum number of established bonds among every two similar atoms remains three.
The maximum number of bonds an atom may form with surrounding atoms is known as valence number. In small size atoms, direct correlations exist between the valence numbers and the number of constituent spiral-galaxies within the bulges. The valence number of atoms neighboring carbon in periodic table decreases or increases, respectively, once a spiral-galaxy is removed from or added to carbon bulge. Besides the valence number, the spatial configuration of neighboring atoms or the distribution of spiral-galaxies within their bulges might also affect the maximum number of bonds made by an atom.
Large atoms generally show a higher valence number compared to smaller size atoms. This is because the rotating disc in large atoms is unable to as tightly confine the bulge components compared to its confinement of bulge components in small size atoms. At the same time, large atoms contain a higher number of spiral-galaxies within their bulge. This concept further explains why large atoms belonging even to the so-called inert gases group of elements may form chemical bonds with other atoms.
Various physical and chemical properties of matter depend on interactions arising from the dynamics of its constituent components. Mass of atoms, disc sizes, location of the encompassing disc with respect to other bulge components, angles under which spiral-galaxies form external bonds, frequencies by which internal or external bonds disconnect and reconnect, and whether in the latter case the new connections are made among the same or different spiral-galaxies are among the main reasons driving chemical and physical properties in various materials. In most media, as seen for example in quartz, even the macroscale crystal geometry has been observed to affect the harmonic oscillations of the residing atoms. The complications underlined by these factors explain why crystallography alone has been unable to answer many fascinating natural phenomena such as the occurrence of patterns conforming to Fibonacci sequence.
CHARGE
Excessive amounts of celestial bodies concentrated within a small space may agglomerate in the form of electron particles. Thermionic effect is an example of such a situation where electron particles are continuously formed from the agglomeration of excess celestial bodies present at the intergalactic medium which in this case are subsequently emitted. The excess celestial bodies might be injected as a result of heating or might be released by the intergalactic medium through stirring of its gravitational balance by, for instance, magnetic field induction. Thus, unlike the claim of today’s Physics that number of electrons in a medium is limited since constituting atoms contain a certain number of electrons in their shell, in fact, there are no limits on the number electrons created by different media since each individual atom can generate new electrons for so long as it is supplied with external celestial bodies.
Based on the current knowledge of celestial objects, at the moment electrons in every world best correspond to globular-clusters in the immediate world aback. This is because globular-clusters beside the less massive open-clusters are the only celestial objects found within the halo of galaxies. However, considering their more massive structure compared to open-clusters, globular-clusters should be the ones acting as electrons in the world ahead. The fact that globular-clusters are mostly seen within the halo of galaxies also helps justify the photoelectric effect phenomenon in which photons with adequate kinetic energies are able to eject electrons.
Just like mass of other celestial objects, it is best to assume that mass of globular-clusters in their equilibrium tend to occur around an average value. A globular-cluster in its equilibrium-mass state seems to be neutral and may act as a negatively charged electron only when it is lacking mass to reach equilibrium. A mass deficient globular-cluster anisotropically pulls on outside matter to absorb celestial bodies into its structure and to compensate its lack of mass. The anisotropic behavior of charged globular-clusters necessitates the assumption of a disc-like structure that is pulling external celestial bodies from one side and repelling them from the other side, with respect to the direction of disc rotation. The anisotropic pull-push character of electron, defined relative to its disc-rotation direction, has experimentally been observed in spin valves where only electrons with a specific disc-rotation direction may pass a ferromagnetic medium. The anisotropic pull-push direction towards external mass in negatively chargeable celestial objects such as globular-clusters is generally opposite to that of the positively chargeable celestial objects such as spiral-galaxies or positrons.
Electron charge formation or loss may occur all over the halo of atoms and that is different from the charge concept when applied to isolated atoms. Charge condition in any isolated atom is decided by the individual spiral-galaxies residing within the bulge. This consideration is required to explain experimental observations of charge occurrence in ionized atoms like singly or doubly charged helium atoms. While a spiral-galaxy in its equilibrium state is always neutral, a mass deficient spiral-galaxy behaves as positively charged since it pulls on external matter in order to compensate its lack of mass and reach the equilibrium state. The magnitude of pulling force exerted by a positively charged spiral-galaxy seems to be unrelated to the level of its mass deficiency. This is probably because while a higher mass loss leads to a stronger gravitational desire for its compensation, at the same time it has already caused a less overall gravitational pull force since the gravitational pull is directly proportional to the overall mass dynamics of the spiral-galaxy. Obviously, the same principle applies to other chargeable celestial objects.
Globular-clusters within the halo of atoms might be ejected due to various gravitational perturbations. The mass deficiency occurred due to the lack of globular-clusters within the periphery of atoms results in a gravitational pull of nearby globular-clusters or stray celestial bodies. This gravitational desire that tends to compensate the lack of globular-clusters or celestial bodies within the halo of atoms is known as positive electrostatic charge or holes. Contrary to the deficiency of globular-clusters within the halo of atoms, their excess leads to a gravitational push of these particles by host atoms. The extent to which a material is intent to absorb or repel globular-clusters amounts for the strength of what is known as positive or negative potential, respectively. The charge-dependent desire of materials to absorb or repel stray celestial bodies has experimentally been employed to adjust temperature through modifying electrical currents and, the other way around, to create electric currents through modifying temperature. This mutual correlation between current and temperature states in materials is known as Peltier-Seebeck effect.
The concept of charge as explained here is best evidenced by the fact that moderate heating of positively charged metallic objects leads to their discharge as the excess celestial bodies introduced to the object compensate for its lack of mass or globular-clusters. On the other hand, in the case of negatively charged metallic objects, moderate heating does not affect their charge state.
CONDUCTION
Conductivity in materials seems to be a direct consequence of their constituent-atoms’ ability to freely change the planes of their rotating disc around bulges in an environment of closely packed atoms. A material can conduct electrons in the direction of linearly-aligned neighboring atoms when the atomic discs are able to position themselves perpendicular to the direction of current flow and in such a way that all discs rotate towards the same direction. In conductors, the direction and strength of the gravitational direction among neighboring atoms remains similar and is decided by the kind and strength of the electric field applied to the media.
Hopping of electrons between neighboring atoms within a material appears to be hampered when disc planes are locked in nonparallel fashions or when their rotations occur towards opposite directions. Thus, resistance of a medium against the flow of electrons seems to mainly be an issue of the difficulty by which discs in neighboring atoms are able to reorient around their bulges. The bonds made among atoms in metallic substances appear to be easily relocatable around the bulges and therefore their positions does not hamper the reorientation of atomic discs. The ease by which bonds can be relocated around the bulge apparently increases with the growing size of the bulge. This is probably the main reason why more massive atoms tend to show higher metallic properties compared to atoms with small masses.
The reorientable character of disc planes in metallic materials also explains their ductile property. However, not every conductive material is necessarily ductile. A good example of a non-ductile conductor showing very high electron mobility is graphene. Graphene is a sheet of carbon atoms in which each constituent carbon atom forms three covalent bonds with three neighboring carbon atoms. In other words, only three out of the four available spiral-galaxies within the bulge of carbon atom form bonds with spiral-galaxies across the bulges of neighboring carbon atoms. The engagement of three spiral-galaxies in bond formation among neighboring carbon atoms is primarily evidenced by graphene’s planar structure. In graphene, due to the partial freedom of disc rotations in carbon atoms, they can freely reorient up to the threshold required for the effective flow of globular-clusters. Interestingly, on the other hand, carbon atoms act as one of the best ever-known insulators when forming four covalent bonds with four of their neighboring carbon atoms. This configuration of carbon atoms leads to the formation of diamond whose good electrical insulation is due to the locking of disc planes in their positions as a direct consequence of four covalent bonds being made between each carbon atom and its neighboring carbon atoms.
MAGNETIC FIELD
Magnetic field line distributions in any medium corresponds to the trajectories traveled by celestial bodies after they are temporarily detached from discs of atoms while mainly maintaining their initial angular momenta. The gravitational perturbations leading to such detachments are primarily initiated by the passage of electrons through atoms. Since atoms can only anisotropically allow the passage of electrons, discs of atoms participating in the current conduction maintain a similar in-plane rotation direction. Therefore, celestial bodies expelled from atomic discs only rotate towards the direction as dictated by the direction of current flow.
It must be noted that an expulsion of celestial bodies from the discs of globular-clusters themselves during gravitational encounters, similar to that of atoms, cannot be ruled out. However, the magnitude of such magnetic fields would be negligible when compared to the known scales of magnetic fields generated by galactic discs. Therefore, contrary to the claim of Physics which associates the generation of magnetic field to the movement of charged particles, magnetic field generation is almost fully a property of the medium which arises in response to the transfer of electron current through it. In practice, no magnetic field is generated around a beam of electrons or any other charged particles traveling unhindered in vacuum. This also explains why, contrary to the claim of today’s Physics, magnetic field cannot be generated by spinning charged-objects, no matter how much their charge levels or spinning speeds are.
As soon as the electron-flow through an atom is stopped, discs reabsorb a comparable amount of celestial bodies they had contributed to the generation of magnetic field. During the resettlement process of celestial bodies, the celestial bodies forming the magnetic field might be exchanged among discs whose rotation planes are approximately coplanar. Therefore, the final settlement of celestial objects might not reflect the original contribution of each atom to the magnetic field generation which in turn leads to the creation of new local equilibria.
The loss-gain mechanism of celestial bodies in galactic discs explains why no magnetic monopole exists and that there are always double poles associated with every magnetized system.
Components within coplanar discs of two neighboring atoms, in the absence of any surrounding gravitational disturbances, tend to rotate in opposite directions. That is because only then the dragging gravitational force where the two discs are tangentially closest would minimally affect the gravitational balance of the rotations in the two atoms. Extending this concept to the discs of atoms on any cross-section of a conductor during current flow would reveal that coplanar neighboring discs should revolve in opposite directions. In other words, for any cross section of the conductor carrying current, roughly speaking half of atoms revolve clockwise while the other half revolve counter-clockwise. The experimental demonstration of this effect is known as Ruderman-Kittel-Kasuya-Yosida effect in which addition of each layer of atoms is seen to reverse the magnetic field direction around the last atomic layer.
Despite their minute mass, the detached celestial bodies forming the magnetic field can influence the directions of much more massive celestial objects due to the strong adherence of these celestial bodies to the media generating the magnetic field. The evidence of such phenomena is known as Lorentz force in which the path of a traversing negatively or positively charged particle bends as magnetic field is applied to the particle under an angle. For instance, an electron entering a top-down applied magnetic field bends rightwards, as referenced to the traveling direction, while if it were to enter a bottom-up magnetic field it would bend leftwards. This occurs because when the globular-cluster enters the magnetic field, its entering-disc’s front-edge gets aligned so that it rotates towards the same direction as the bombarding direction of celestial bodies forming the magnetic field. Thereafter, due to its anisotropic absorption character, globular-cluster pulls on celestial bodies on its right side while repelling them on the left side. A positively charged spiral-galaxy or positron under similar conditions would bend towards the opposite direction due to its converse gravitational anisotropy direction. Based on the same principle, in what is known as Lenz’s law, application of a gradient magnetic field to a conductor results in an anisotropic transfer of electrons and thereby a forceful alignment of medium’s atomic discs along the direction of current flow.
The influence of magnetic field on the resistance of certain conducting environments, in phenomena which are incompatible with justifications presented by Hall effect within today’s Physics, provides another evidence on the role of disc plane reorientations on electron transfer. The alignment imposed on the direction of disc planes via application of certain magnitudes of external magnetic field has experimentally been demonstrated to improve the mobility of electrons in some materials such as graphene. The aforementioned effect of magnetic field is counterintuitive as normally any magnitude of applied magnetic field should lead to a decrease in mobility due to its effect on bending and scattering of electrons away from their traveling direction. The increase in the mobility of electron current is probably because of an increase in the number electrons that successfully pass any given cross section of the conductive medium due to the forceful alignment of a higher number of atomic discs after the application of external magnetic field, whose magnitude may create different interaction dynamics among neighboring atoms forming the conductor.
The assumption of magnetic field generation concept as such further explains paramagnetic, ferromagnetic and even peculiarly known diamagnetic behaviors as observed in certain materials. While disc planes within a paramagnetic medium need to constantly be under an externally applied magnetic field to maintain their alignment, in a ferromagnet they may maintain their alignment direction even after the removal of external magnetic field. Contrary to the characteristics of disc planes in paramagnets and ferromagnets, in diamagnetic media apparently the disc planes are interlocked among neighboring atoms in such a way that the direction of generated magnetic field from the material defies the force generated via the application of externally applied magnetic field. All these magnetic behaviors are consequences of disc engagement behaviors among nearby atoms forming the material. While paramagnetic behavior can usually be considered a consequence of individual atomic response, largely independent of neighboring atoms, the ferromagnetic and diamagnetic behaviors appear to be the results of collective reactions coming from residing atomic-colonies within the matter in response to externally applied magnetic fields.
With regards to superconductors, Physics claims there is no resistance to the current flow inside a superconducting material. All measurements leading to such a claim refer to the extremely stable magnetic fields created around the superconducting environments as proof of the non-diminishing current. However, the stable nature of magnetic fields generated by superconductors is more likely to be a consequence of interlocked atomic disc-planes that are unable to regain the celestial bodies they lost during magnetic field generation. Possibly, the interlocking of atomic disc planes occurs after they are cooled down below the superconducting temperature of the material while contributing to the magnetic field generation. The interlocking of atomic disc planes in superconducting material holds for so long as their alignments are not irreversibly disturbed by the injection of extra celestial bodies whether in the form of heat or external magnetic field.
LIGHT
Light particles best correspond to open-clusters mainly because they are the least massive celestial objects seen within the sweeping space of galactic disc planes around bulges. Open-clusters seem to be colonies of celestial bodies with fluid gravitational behaviors that, unlike chargeable celestial objects, demonstrate identical gravitational behaviors on both sides of their discs. In the event of gravitational perturbations occurring in their host galaxies, open-clusters are let loose of their gravitational connection and follow linear trajectories with velocities equal to those of their final angular speeds prior to the ejection from galactic spheres. Similar to every other existing entity in Universe, and unlike how it has been promoted by today’s Physics, open-clusters have mass and it shouldn’t come as a surprise that they are affected by gravity.
An open-cluster entering the sphere of an isolated galaxy is gravitationally forced into a radius for which it would have the right orbital angular speed based on its entering linear speed. Thus, a higher speed open-cluster arriving at the sphere of a galaxy revolves the bulge on a smaller radius compared to a lower speed open-cluster. This, for example explains why contrary to the propagation of various light colors in vacuum, it takes a ray of blue-color light longer times to pass through transparent media, compared to a ray of red-color light. While passing through transparent materials, compared to the relatively slow red-color open-clusters, blue-color open-clusters experience more drastic trajectory changes when entering the sphere of atoms. This is because blue-color open-clusters have to locate on orbits closer to the bulge and therefore often have to deviate more towards the bulge before subsequently leaving the atomic spheres. The larger deviation, inevitably results in longer overall travel distances of blue-color open-clusters compared to red-color open-clusters in various transparent materials. Considering the small difference between the speeds of red-color and blue-color open-clusters, the longer travel distances through any medium of transparent atoms implies a longer travelling time for the faster blue-color open-clusters than red-color open-clusters.
Encounters between a traveling open-cluster and a galactic disc may follow one of the following two trends. Should the rotating disc of the galaxy at open-cluster’s traveling radius be free of celestial bodies, the open-cluster would pass through the plane of rotating disc. Such a galaxy would be considered transparent for all traversing open-clusters of the same speed. On the contrary, should the rotating disc of galaxy at open-cluster’s traveling radius contain a dense layer of celestial bodies, the entering open-cluster collides with the disc material and dissipates into the disc. Such a galaxy would act as opaque for all incoming open-clusters of a similar speed. In practice, however, the passage or blockage of an open-cluster during an encounter with host atom’s rotating disc is to some extent a probabilistic process. The probabilistic nature of such encounter is due to the fact that besides the density of celestial bodies present at the position of encounter, the relative angle under which the open-cluster has entered the galactic sphere also plays an important role in determining the fate of incoming open-cluster. It is possible that an open-cluster enters a galactic sphere on a trajectory that is parallel to the disc plane and therefore misses any collision with the disc. In such a situation even if the atom acts as opaque for the traversing open-cluster, it cannot block the passage of open-cluster. It is obvious that in this case, increasing the number of atoms on the way of travelling open-cluster increases the chances of its absorption by the target atoms. On the other hand, any open-cluster encountering a target atom with a trajectory covering a line on the same plane as that of the atomic disc’s, is absorbed by the target atom after undergoing an edge-on collision, regardless of atom’s transparent or opaque character while receiving such open-clusters under other angles.
By assuming an uneven spreading of celestial bodies across different radii of the disc, the transparency and opacity of target atoms can plausibly be explained when receiving incoming open-clusters. The thickness pattern of the celestial bodies spreading across the disc, to a good approximation, can be assumed to be a function of radii as measured with respect to galaxy’s center. The variations in the density of celestial-bodies might be both due to internal dynamics of the galaxy or due to its interactions with neighboring galaxies. Although concrete instances of uneven spreading of celestial bodies on concentric or near-concentric radii in galactic scales have yet to be established, planetary systems like Uranus and Saturn clearly show such distributions of matter via their possession of discrete, concentric, and coplanar rings.
It is worth emphasizing that orbits containing uniform thicknesses within the atoms do not necessarily form perfect circular or elliptical patterns. In fact, based on the specific mass distribution and dynamics of the galaxy’s bulge or its gravitational interactions with the surrounding celestial entities, the thickness patterns within a galaxy’s disc might be more complex.
Interactions of radio frequency, visible, and X-ray bands of radiation with matter constitute three unique examples of open-cluster behaviors once interacting with atoms. Radio frequency, or RF, is referred to the wide frequency band which is nowadays employed for numerous telecommunication purposes. After entering the galactic sphere of target atoms, open-clusters forming the RF band would gravitationally be located on the very outer edges of galactic spheres. Since the outermost radii within discs are often empty or scarcely populated by celestial bodies, most atomic environments only slightly attenuate the intensity of open-clusters arriving from the rather broad RF range of the spectrum. It must be noted that since the absorption of open-clusters by an atom is also related to the angle under which the open-clusters has approached the atom with respect to the disc, there are always chances that an open-cluster belonging to any speed within the spectrum fails in passing a target atom. Therefore, by increasing the number of atoms on the way of RF open-clusters, chances increase that less open-clusters succeed in traversing the target environment. Attenuation of open-clusters belonging to different regions of the spectrum during their encounter with various materials is not only related to the internal dynamics of target atoms but also to target atoms’ interaction with neighboring celestial entities. Unlike open-clusters forming the RF band, open-clusters forming the visible band usually end up being located on orbits already occupied by celestial bodies while traveling through most solid materials and therefore have less chances of passing through thick rows of atoms. Open-clusters forming the RF and visible bands provide examples of interaction with matter whose outcomes are mainly determined by the characteristics of target atoms. On the contrary, open-clusters forming the X-ray or gamma-ray provide examples of interaction with matter in which trajectories of open-clusters are barely affected by target atoms. In fact, these open-clusters are so fast that, once inside the galactic sphere of most target atoms, they lack sufficient time to find matching orbital trajectories corresponding to their speeds. Thus, in most of their encounters, open-clusters forming X-ray and gamma-ray force their way through galactic spheres and can mainly be stopped after collisions against massive atoms.
The arrival of open-clusters at various radii around the bulge in accordance with their traveling speeds additionally justifies the photoelectric effect in which electrons are ejected from a negatively charged material while being bombarded by open-clusters of sufficient speeds. After colliding with target electrons, the incoming open-clusters lose their original momentum and contingent on the dynamics of the collision may come to a halt, scatter, or decompose into celestial bodies. Obviously, out of these three possible outcomes of the encounter, only the scattering of open-clusters is detectable. Such scattering of open-clusters off the charged particles is known as Compton scattering. A scattered open-cluster shows a lower speed compared to its absolute value prior to the collision as a fraction of its momentum is transferred to the encountered charged particle during the encounter.
Unlike what is claimed by today’s Physics under the topic of pair production, charged particles such as electrons and positrons cannot be created solely by photons. This is due to the fact that charged particles such as electrons or positrons are by far more massive than single open-clusters. The two electron and positron particles observed in pair-production effect are most likely generated after a momentous gamma open-cluster hits a target atom and a chunk of the atom is torn in the direction of impinging open-cluster. That is why a medium is always required in order to reproduce the pair-production effect.
EMISSION
Perturbing the gravitational equilibrium of galaxies beyond a certain threshold leads to the formation of open-clusters and their subsequent emission. The gravitational perturbations in materials might be initiated by means of flame, passing a current of electrons, or forcing the discs of galaxies to rapidly reorient using an alternating electric or magnetic field. The intensity of emitted open-clusters is directly proportional to the amount of celestial bodies brought within the gravitationally perturbed intergalactic space or released by the atoms forming the media. As gravitational perturbation grows in magnitude due to the increasing density of stray celestial bodies, open-clusters are formed more towards the interior orbits around the bulge, increasing the average speed of emitted open-clusters. In other words, at higher temperatures, emission’s distribution-peak is blue-shifted.
Emission and absorption spectra of different elements in their gaseous states provide the most robust evidence on the discrete nature of discs around bulges. The empty regions within the emission spectra of gaseous media indicate galactic discs creating such patterns are formed by coplanar rings of celestial bodies separated by ring-shaped empty gaps or low-density celestial bodies. The absence of open-clusters of certain speeds within the emission spectrum of some gaseous environments is a demonstration that open-clusters are primarily formed and emitted from the orbits at which celestial bodies are sufficiently present. Only those rings containing celestial bodies may form and emit open-clusters while empty or low-density rings generate no open-clusters. The dense presence of celestial bodies at emitting orbits explains why material environments are opaque for the very same open-cluster speeds they emit during gravitational perturbations.
It is worth mentioning that the occurrence of red-shifts observed in the spectral lines of elements belonging to gaseous environments of faraway galaxies, is most likely due to the impact of the traveling open-clusters with stray celestial bodies on their way towards planet Earth that slows them down. Photons coming from farther celestial entities are more likely to undergo a higher number of collisions with stray pieces of celestial bodies and therefore generally exhibit larger red-shifts. Currently, Physics claims that such red-shifts are owing to galaxies recession from Earth which on its own is a consequent of the expanding Universe as postulated within Expansion theory.
Just like in gaseous media, the presence of narrow rings of celestial bodies within galactic discs separated by empty gaps is evidenced in crystalline or amorphous media. In practice, the presence of such narrow rings has been demonstrated by the emission of highly monochromatic laser beams generated from such solid media.
Because the emission speed of open-clusters is directly related to the dynamics of rotating discs in host galaxies, it can be affected by the application of magnetic or electric fields. Application of magnetic field modifies the directions of disc planes which may consequently lead to an increase or decrease in atomic discs’ angular rotation velocities. Open-clusters emitted from such angular-velocity shifted discs exhibit a less or an extra momentum acquired according to the rotation direction of their parent discs. The splitting of spectral lines as a result of magnetic field application to an emitting environment is known as Zeeman effect. The increase or decrease in the angular velocity of discs probably occurs for those which in their tangential engagement with incoming celestial bodies, forming the magnetic lines, rotate towards the same or opposite directions, respectively. A stronger magnetic field may even lead to a higher number of spectral line splitting as the intertwined galactic discs are further pushed to their spatial movement limits. Likewise, application of an electric field to substances may affect the direction of disc planes and their angular rotation velocities. Electric fields applied to some atomic and molecular systems during emission, have been demonstrated to split or shift the spectral lines in a phenomenon known as Stark effect. Although, Zeeman and Stark effects were specifically discussed here with respect to the emission process, both concepts are equally valid when applied to the absorption process in matter under magnetic or electric field application. This is because both the emission and absorption of certain speed open-clusters by atoms are direct consequences of the occupancy of the corresponding orbital rings by celestial bodies within the rotating disc.
INTERACTION WITH MATTER
One of the oldest known interactions between light and matter is reflection. Reflection of open-clusters from a surface seems to be the result of their elastic repulsion by the net gravitational dynamics of the target medium. The elastic character of the gravitational encounter is evidenced by the equal values of the incidence and reflection angles and also by the fact that the momenta of the reflected particles are preserved after the encounter. In a reflection process, impinging small-mass open-clusters are unable to penetrate and disturb the gravitational balance of the target media. This explains why dense metallic or aqueous environments with strong internal gravitational connections between the galaxies forming their surfaces generally reflect a higher fraction of incident open-clusters compared to less dense media. Nevertheless, based on the dynamics of every encounter, there are always chances that a fraction of open-clusters dissipates into the target media.
The intricate gravitational dynamics of each medium renders its interaction with incoming open-clusters and other celestial objects unique. These unique signatures arising from distinctive gravitational interactions with incoming celestial objects are utilized to perform accurate material characterization studies such as X-ray photoelectron, Auger electron, or Infrared spectroscopies.
Another fundamental interaction between light and matter is known as refraction. In refraction, a beam of light suddenly deviates as it enters a new transparent environment under oblique angles. The sudden change in the trajectory of an open-cluster passing through an interface of two transparent media, under a non-perpendicular angle of incidence, occurs due to the sudden variation in the gravitational pull exerted by atoms forming the interface. Density and atomic arrangements of media forming either side of the interface are the main parameters determining the new trajectory of traversing open-clusters. At the interface, traversing open-clusters located closer to the bulge of atoms face a stronger gravitational change compared to the ones farther from the bulge. That is why, for instance, refraction angles are larger for blue-color open-clusters compared to red-color ones. The higher the difference between net gravitational pulls of the sides forming the interface, the larger the refraction angle of traversing open-cluster through the interface would be. This is because pulling force exerted by one side overwhelms the pulling force from the other side. A practical observation of refraction process is realized via obtaining the emission or absorption spectra of various elements after directing their emitted or filtered light beams to a prism which basically creates an obliquely placed air-glass interface on the way of traversing beams. Such refraction leads to the formation of an element-specific spectrum which in fact is a demonstration of open-clusters separation based on their velocities. It is worth mentioning that open-clusters belonging to X-ray and gamma-ray bands of the spectrum are much less susceptible to interface effects due to their high speeds when compared to speeds governed by galactic-disc dynamics at ambient conditions.
POLARIZATION
Assumption of disc formation in open-clusters is essential to explain polarized light’s interaction with matter. Disc formation in celestial objects occurs in response to their rotational dynamics which in turn is the outcome of gravitational interactions between the constituent celestial bodies.
It is the relative orientations of disc planes between an incoming open-cluster and the target atom that determines the polarity and outcome of the ensuing gravitational encounter. An incoming open-cluster whose disc plane is approximately oriented parallel to the target atom’s disc plane, under a grazing incidence, is most likely reflected after the gravitational encounter. On the other hand, an incoming open-cluster whose disc plane is perpendicularly oriented with respect to the target atom’s disc plane almost certainly collides against the target atom and dissolves into it. These two distinct behaviors of open-clusters in their interaction with matter lead to what are respectively known as parallel and perpendicular polarizations of light.
The absorption fraction of open-clusters with a parallel polarization increases as the incidence angle of the beam increases from grazing to right angle at which both parallel and perpendicular polarizations show similar maximum absorption fraction values. This is due to the fact that at right angle incidences, disc plane directions for all shone open-clusters will always be placed perpendicular to the surface of target medium.
It is important to note that effects such as transmission, absorption, reflection, and refraction of open-clusters are as much about the target matter properties as they are about the polarization of incoming beams. The outcome of any interaction between light and matter largely depends on target atoms’ relative disc orientations and their collective gravitational dynamics. This is clearly demonstrated by Brewster’s angle whose value mainly depends on the properties of the environments forming the transparent interface. Under Brewster’s angle of incidence, almost all open-clusters with perpendicular polarity are transmitted through the transparent interface.
Another interesting topic in polarization concerns what is known as the circular polarization of light. Circularly polarized open-clusters most likely are linearly polarized open-clusters that have obtained some degree of precession. The precession of rotating disc might be clockwise or counterclockwise which explains the corresponding circular polarization states. The fact that reflection of circularly polarized open-clusters from any target material switches their precession direction, with respect to their travel directions, is an important indication that the gravitational encounter between incoming open-clusters and target atoms is an elastic one. Otherwise, for example if the incident open-clusters were making a round-trip around the first rows of target atoms, the precession directions of open-clusters would have been maintained after the gravitational encounter leading to their reflection.
A relevant discussion here is the generation of linearly polarized open-clusters from decelerating charged particles. Intense monochromatic beams of linearly-polarized open-clusters can be generated in synchrotron or linear particle accelerator facilities. These beams provide unique opportunities especially in characterization studies of low-density sample materials. An open-cluster that is peeled off a decelerating globular-cluster tends to maintain the collective momentum of its constituting celestial bodies. Thus, one of the common characteristics of open-clusters peeled off the gravitationally perturbed globular-clusters during deceleration, in an aligning magnetic field, is their polarization direction.
It is important to note that in every accelerator, the maximum achievable speed of any charged particle is restricted by its gravitational encounters with accelerator facility’s stationary constituent atoms. Thus, the limits of accelerated charged particles in such facilities are similar to those of emitted open-clusters or celestial bodies forming the magnetic field. Accordingly, the highest achievable speed of X-ray open-clusters generated in such facilities is roughly twice the speed of open-clusters forming the ultraviolet band. Hypothetically speaking, if the accelerator facility were to move in the direction of charged particle’s acceleration, the achievable speed of accelerated charged-particles or open-clusters peeled from them could have further increased.
What makes the topic of charged particle accelerator facilities even more interesting is that these facilities can be used to force the collision of particles to their annihilation extent. Such collisions lead to the creation of zoos of newly formed stable and unstable celestial entities including what are termed as quark and Higgs boson particles.
SUPERCLUSTER
The broadening of a beam’s cross-section as it travels, better known as beam divergence, is primarily a consequence of gravitational perturbations caused by small differences between velocity vectors of nearby traveling open-clusters. The extent of the divergence depends on the magnitude of gravitational perturbation among the traveling open-clusters or in other words on the scale of differences between their velocity vectors. A beam of sunlight, which is composed of open-clusters with almost all varieties of velocities, diverges significantly as it travels through space. On the contrary, a beam of laser which is composed of open-clusters with largely identical velocity vectors, comparably, only slightly diverges as it travels. In the latter case, neighboring open-clusters with identical velocity vectors form much larger stable colonies of open-clusters within the beam known as superclusters. The size and length of superclusters within a beam increases as velocity vectors of constituent open-clusters become more identical. In today’s Physics, this property is referred to as coherence length and is used to indicate the degree to which collimation of certain beams is maintainable.
Another parameter that influences the gravitational perturbations and therefore the structure of superclusters in a travelling beam is the density of its constituent open-clusters. For collimated beams of open-clusters with near-identical velocity vectors, a higher density of open-clusters leads to a spatially smaller size supercluster and therefore a larger beam divergence. This is the result of increased gravitational repulsions among the nearby traveling open-clusters within denser beams.
Supercluster formation is a common character of all celestial entities including celestial bodies, globular-clusters, various galaxies, and even superclusters themselves.
DIFFRACTION
Diffraction is referred to the formation of bright and dark fringes on a screen after light, passed through a narrow opening, is shone on it. During their relatively short time passing through the opening, open-clusters that come close to border atoms of opening’s frame refract towards the frame in grazing angles owing to its higher gravitational pull compared to the transparent medium of the opening. The engagement of open-clusters in the refraction process is further facilitated by the divergent character of the light beam that pushes a larger number of open-clusters towards the frame. Except for the very last few columns of atoms forming the farthest edge of the frame, refraction of open-clusters towards the frame in most cases is followed by their reflection back into the opening space. The ensued gravitational interactions between the reflected and traveling open-clusters within the opening lead to significant changes in the beam’s supercluster profile. Compared to supercluster formations entering the opening, the outgoing superclusters propagate under much larger divergent angles because of the additional sideward momenta introduced by the reflected open-clusters. The refraction of open-clusters by the last few columns of atoms forming its farthest edge right before leaving the opening significantly adds to the widening of outgoing beam. The resulting equilibria between individually propagating superclusters of open-clusters determine the final layout of the diffraction pattern. Besides the geometry and material of the opening, the specifics of diffraction patterns depend on density, velocity vector, and polarization of open-clusters forming the incident beam.
Young’s interference experiment is known to have provided the oldest documented observation of diffraction patterns. In this setup, light passes through two closely placed slits before forming diffraction pattern on a relatively far-placed screen. Each slit widens the incoming light into a rectangle of several diverging light stripes. The superimposition of the two rectangular beams on their way to the screen leads to a significant increase in the number of visible stripes compared to when only one single slit was utilized. This happens because the open-clusters within each stripe form new supercluster arrangements after meeting similar stripes of open-clusters under grazing angles. During this process, narrower and more collimated stripes of superclusters are formed from every two superimposing superclusters of open-clusters which are similarly distributed in space. Superimposition of the two open-cluster rays in Young’s interferometer results in a large contrast between the numerous bright and dark fringes shaping the diffracted pattern.
It is worth emphasizing that polarization of the shone beam is a significant factor in deciding details of the final diffraction pattern. The gravitational interplay between two side by side travelling superclusters, each containing only a single polarization of open-clusters but perpendicular to the polarization of open-clusters in the other supercluster is minimal. The polarization direction of open-clusters is also decisive in determining whether those open-clusters which are refracted by the frame atoms are mainly absorbed or reflected back into the opening. Hence, diffraction patterns obtained from superimposition of two beams with relative perpendicular polarizations would be much less pronounced.
Open-clusters arrive at the position of slits in discrete superclusters whose specifics depend on many parameters unique to the light source. The involvement of numerous parameters makes it nearly impossible to create beams with similar supercluster distribution in space. This explains why diffraction patterns are not formed when simultaneous light beams obtained from different sources are shone separately on either of the slits in Young’s interferometer. In order to obtain diffraction patterns in any type of interferometer setup, an original beam of open-clusters is used to create two or more rays using slits or beam splitters. Beam splitters, inside interferometer apparatuses, slice a fraction of the light using partially transmitting mirrors before the branched beams meet under grazing incidences, as seen in Michelson-Morley’s interferometer for instance.
Diffraction is a general consequence of gravitational interactions between all celestial objects and can be observed so long as particles within the colliding beams meet under grazing angles that also requires a similar spatial distribution of superclusters between the beams. Therefore, beams of all celestial objects including electrons, atoms, and neutrons are able to create diffraction patterns, the evidence of which has experimentally been demonstrated.